.. -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

============================
 English Punctuation Guide.
============================

Punctuation symbol.
===================
::

  !  exclamation mark
  "" single quotation marks
  '' double quotation marks
  '  apostrophe
  ,  comma
  -  hyphen
  .  full stop (period USA)
  :  colon
  ;  semi colon
  ?  question mark
  ... ellipsis

General rules.
==============

 * Put end-of-sentence punctuation inside quotation marks.
 * Put commas and other sentence punctuation outside of parentheses.
 * Put a comma (plus a space) before and, but, or, and nor when they
   join two sentences.
 * The semicolon (;) is not used widely in English and probably should
   be avoided by non-native writers.
 * Names of newspapers, books, movies, ships, magazines, journals, and
   poems are usually italicized or underlined.

Capital letter.
===============

 1. A capital is used for the first letter of a new sentence, of quoted
    speech or proper nouns.
 2. The first letter of a sentence does not need to be capitalized if it
    is included in parenthesis within another sentence.
 3. A capital letter is always used for the first person singular
    subjective personal pronoun I.
 4. A capital is used for the first letter of key words in headings and
    titles. If such titles are hyphenated then both components are given
    capitalized first letters.
 5. A capital is used for the first letter of key words in historical
    events.
 6. A capital is used for the first letter of religions and many other
    religious words.
 7. A capital is used for the first letter of names of months and days of
    the week, but not of seasons.
 8. Holidays should also be capitalized.

Examples::

  [3] My boss and I agreed that I should make up for the time I  had lost.
  [4] The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
  [4] The Centers for Disease Control
  [4] Vice-President Dick Cheney
  [5] The Battle of Waterloo
  [5] The Great Fire of London
  [6] Devout Christians do daily Bible study.
  [7] After a long, hot summer she married him on a sultry Saturday in September.
  [8] January 1 is New Year's Day.

Spaces.
=======

 * Put one space after punctuation.
 * Put no spaces before punctuation, but always put a space between words.
 * Put no spaces after periods inside abbreviations.
 * Put no space before or after an apostrophe.
 * Put no space on the "inside" of quotation marks (often called "quotes").
 * Put no space on the "inside" of parentheses.

Some old rules:

 * Put two spaces after colons and between sentences.

Exclamation mark, '!'.
======================

 * Exclamation marks act as a full stop.
 * An exclamation mark is most often used to show shock, surprise,
   horror or pleasure.
 * No space is needed before an exclamation mark, at least one space
   after one (two spaces for purists).

Examples::

  Oh! Wow! Brilliant!
  It was shocking!

Apostrophe, "'".
================

 * Apostrophes next to the letter ('s) indicate possession or belonging.
 * They are also used to show missing letters in shortened words, especially in
   informal writing.
 * No space is needed before or after the apostrophe.

Examples::

  This is Lynne's web site.
  It's a nice day today, isn't it? I've got an idea. Let's go out.

Comma, ','.
===========

 1. Separate items in long lists.
 2. Commas point out brief pauses in a complex sentence or a long
    prepositional phrase.
 3. Comma is included before the conjunction 'and' which comes before
    the final element of a list (for purists).
 4. Introduce a direct quote.
 5. Separate appositives (a noun, or noun phrase) or non-defining
    relative clauses.
 6. Use a comma if your subject has two or more adjectives describing
    it.
 7. You do not put a space before a comma, but you do need a space after
    one.
 8. We don't usually put a comma before the word 'and'.

Examples::

  [1] There were a lot of people in the room, teachers, students and parents.
  [2] The teachers were sitting, the students were listening and the parents
      were just worrying.
  [2] Although he wanted to come, he wasn't able to attend the course.
  [3] I like reading, listening to music, and visiting with my friends.
  [4] The boy said, "My father is often away during the week on business trips."
  [4] His doctor replied, "If you don't stop smoking, you run the risk of a
      heart attack."
  [5] Bill Gates, the richest man in the world, comes from Seattle.
  [5] My only sister, who is a fantastic tennis player, is in great shape.
  [6] The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.

Colon, ':'.
===========

 1. Colons precede a list, an explanation or an example.
 2. The colon is used to separate two main clauses where the first is an
    introduction to the second.
 3. To introduce a direct quote (a comma can also be used in this
    situation).
 4. You do not put a space before a colon, but you do need a space after
    one.

Examples::

  [1] There are two main shopping areas in Nottingham: Broadmarsh Centre and
      Victoria Centre.
  [2] The pilot had an awful realization: he had forgotten to turn off the gas
      at breakfast time.
  [3] He announced to his friends: "I'm getting married!"

Full stop (period), '.'.
========================

 1. Full stops (periods in the USA) go at the end of sentences that are
    statements.
 2. They are also used to mark abbreviations. If such an abbreviation
    occurs at the very end of a sentence, the final dot is not usually
    written twice.
 3. You do not put a space before a full stop, but you do need at least
    one space after one (two spaces for purists).

Examples::

  [1] My name is Lynn. I am a teacher.
  [2] An overhead projector is often referred to as an O.H.P.

Hyphen, '-'.
============

 * Hyphens are used to connect words or syllables, or to divide words into
   parts.
 * You don't use a space on either side of a hyphen.

Examples::

  There were ninety-nine red balloons.

Question mark, '?'.
===================

 1. Question marks go at the end of sentences that are questions.
 2. You need a question mark at the end of tag questions.
 3. For quotes within quotes, use single quotes.
 4. You do not put a space before a question mark, but you do need at
    least one space after one (two spaces for purists).

Examples::

  [1] Is my name Lynn? Of course it is.
  [2] It's a nice day, isn't it?

Semicolon, ';'.
===============

 1. Semicolons are used to separate two sentences that would otherwise
    be joined with a word such as 'and', 'because', 'since', 'unless' or
    'while'. 2 To separate groups of words that are themselves separated
    by commas.
 2. You do not put a space before a semicolon, but you do need a space
    after one.

Examples::

  [1] I'm looking forward to our next lesson; I'm sure it will be a lot of fun.
  [2] They plan to study German, for their travels; chemistry, for their work;
  and literature, for their own enjoyment.

Quotation mark (speech mark), '""', "''".
=========================================

Double quotes '""', single quotes "''".

 * Quotation marks (single or double) are used to show words that are
   directly spoken (direct speech).
 * Only the words actually being quoted are enclosed by speech marks.
 * You need a space before the opening speech mark, but no space after
   it, and a space after the closing one, but no space before it.
 * Another general rule is to use a comma after the introduction to
   quoted speech or writing.
 * Sometimes when writing a spoken sentence it is split in two. The
   speech marks must then be placed at the beginning and end of each
   part of the sentence. Commas are used to separate the spoken part
   from the rest of the sentence.
 * If you need a question mark or exclamation mark the markers that
   punctuate the quoted words are enclosed by the speech marks.

Examples::

  "Could everyone sit down please," said the teacher.
  Jaime said, "I love you."
  "I wonder," she said quietly, "whether people will ever truly understand each other."
  "I don't understand," replied Nathan.
  "Do you understand?" asked Nathan.
  "I don't understand!" shouted Nathan.
  Nathan replied, "I don't understand."
  Nathan asked, "Do you understand?"
  Nathan shouted, "I don't understand!"
  He wrote in 1946 that, "The key word in digital computer is 'digital'."

Ellipsis, '...'.
================

 1. Ellipsis used to show that something has been omitted, indicate
    missing words in an incomplete quotation.

Examples::

  [1] Chomsky suggested that, "Language is a system that...can be described in
      an algebraic notation."

Dash, '-', '--'.
================

 1. The dash should be used when making a brief interruption within a
    statement, a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a
    dramatic qualification.

Parentheses '()'.
=================

 1. Use parentheses to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a
    personal comment. Be sure to include the period after the closing
    parenthesis.

Examples::

  [1] Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of
      directors in 2005.
  [1] You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the
      batteries!).
  [1] Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always
      interchangeable (I disagree).

Brackets '[]'.
==============

 1. Use brackets to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of
    writing. You can also use brackets to clarify or to revise a direct
    quote so that it appeals to your own writing.
 2. The first brackets are rounded, and brackets inside brackets are
    squared.

Examples::

  [1] "[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith.

Slash '/'.
==========

 1. Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate.
 2. The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns.
 3. The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line
    break. Be sure to add spaces between your slashes here.

Examples::

  [1] To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth
      certificate."
  [2] The student/part-time employee has very little free time.
  [3] "Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / life is but a dream."