==================
 English suffices
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.. contents::
   :local:

Suffix -s
=========

Suffixes ``-s``/``-es`` are used to create:

* plural form of nouns
* verbs in the third person

After ``-sh``, ``-ch``, ``-ss`` and ``-x`` endings suffix ``-es`` is added.

After ``-o`` usually suffix ``-es`` added::

  cargo ⇒ cargoes, echo ⇒ echoes, go ⇒ goes, hero ⇒ heroes, tomato ⇒ tomatoes

but there are few exceptions::

  memos, photos, pianos, videos

``fe`` changed to ``ve`` and ``s`` append::

  knife ⇒ knives, life ⇒ lives, wife ⇒ wives

``f`` changed to ``v`` and ``es`` append::

  half ⇒ halves, wolf ⇒ wolves, loaf ⇒ loaves

``us`` changes to ``i``::

  cactus ⇒ cacti, nucleus ⇒ nuclei, focus ⇒ foci

``is`` changed to ``es``::

  analysis ⇒ analyses, crisis ⇒ crises, thesis ⇒ theses

Words ending in consonant + ``-y`` change ``-y`` to ``-i`` and ``-es`` is
appended::

  apply ⇒ applies, baby ⇒ babies, carry ⇒ carries, marry ⇒ marries

General rule is just append ``-s`` suffix::

  bring ⇒ brings, buy ⇒ buys, day ⇒ days, smile ⇒ smiles, speak ⇒ speaks

``[s]`` pronunciation is used after voiceless sounds::

  [f] beliefs, coughs, laughs, graphs
  [k] attacks, books, bricks, drinks
  [p] cups, helps, ships, stops
  [t] hits, pets, writes
  [θ] maths, months, moths, myths

``[z]`` pronunciation is used after voiced sounds::

  [ɡ] bags, dogs, pigs, rugs
  [b] crabs, grabs, robs
  [ð] bathes, breathes, clothes, lathes
  [d] cards, ends, lids, rides, words
  [l] calls, falls, fails, hills
  [m] comes, dreams, plums, trams
  [n] earns, burns, pens, runs
  [ŋ] belongs, paintings, kings, sings, songs
  [r] wears, cures
  [v] drives, gloves, leaves, loves
  -y: plays, boys, says

``[ɪz]`` or ``[əz]`` pronunciation is used after sibilant sounds::

  [dʒ] ages, changes, edges, bridges, images, pages
  [s] boxes, bosses, buses, fixes, kisses, places, races
  [∫] crashes, dishes, pushes, teaches, washes, wishes
  [ʧ] churches, matches, watches
  [z] chooses, freezes, prizes, rises, sizes, quizzes

Suffix -ed
==========

Words ending in ``-e`` do not require additional ``e``::

  agree ⇒ agreed, arrive ⇒ arrived,  love ⇒ loved

Words ending in a consonant + ``-y`` change the ``-y`` to ``i`` before ``-ed``::

  apply ⇒ applied, cry ⇒ cried, dry ⇒ dried

Word ending in ``-ic`` change ending to ``-ick`` before ``ing``::

  frolic ⇒ frolicked, mimic ⇒ mimicked, panic ⇒ panicked
  picnic ⇒ picnicked, traffic ⇒ trafficked

The general rule is add ``-ed`` to the verb::

  clean ⇒ cleaned, seem ⇒ seemed, sail ⇒ sailed

``[id]`` is pronounced after the letters ``t``, ``d``::

  [d]: added, ended, handed, faded, folded, needed
  [t]: hated, retreated, started, wanted, waited

``[d]`` is pronounced after a voiced consonant or after a vowel::

  [ɡ]: begged, bugged, flagged, tagged
  [b]: grabbed, robbed
  [ð] bathe ⇒ bathed, breathed
  [d] ended, lidded
  [dʒ]: changed, judged, raged
  [l]: called, failed, piled
  [m]: boomed, drummed, farmed, formed
  [n]: earned, learned, pinned, rained
  [ŋ] belonged, pinged, wronged
  [r]: cured, occurred
  [v]: craved, loved, saved
  [z]: amazed, buzzed, seized
  employed, lied, mowed, played, skied, studied, toed, tried, weighed

``[t]`` is pronounced after a voiceless consonant::

  [ʃ]: crashed, flashed, pushed, washed, wished
  [f]: coughed, laughed, puffed
  [ʧ]: hatched, matched, watched, wished
  [k]: baked, looked, lacked, packed
  [p]: jumped, stopped, trapped
  [s]: fixed, kissed, passed, placed
  [θ]: frothed

Suffix -ing
===========

Suffix ``-ing`` are used to create:

* gerunds
* verbs form for continuous tenses

Words ending in ``-ee``, ``-ye``, ``-oe`` keep the ``-e``:

  agree ⇒ agreeing, flee ⇒ fleeing, free ⇒ freeing, see ⇒ seeing

Words ending in ``-ie`` change the ``-i`` to ``-y`` and ``-e`` is dropped before
``-ing``:

  die ⇒ dying, lie ⇒ lying, tie ⇒ tying

Words ending in ``-e`` drop the ``-e`` before ``-ing``::

  give ⇒ giving, love ⇒ loving, lose ⇒ losing
  argue ⇒ arguing, issue ⇒ issuing, sue ⇒ suing

Word ending in ``-ic`` change ending to ``-ick`` before ``ing``::

  frolic ⇒ frolicking, mimic ⇒ mimicking, panic ⇒ panicking
  picnic ⇒ picnicking, traffic ⇒ trafficking

The general rule is just add ``-ing`` to the verb::

  accept ⇒ accepting, go ⇒ going, hurry ⇒ hurrying, play ⇒ playing

Suffix -er
==========

Syffix -ly
==========

Doubling consonants
===================

When word ends with one of consonants ``b``, ``d``, ``g``, ``l``, ``m``, ``n``,
``p``, ``r``, ``t`` that followed by single vowel this consonant doubled before
prefixes ``-ed``, ``-er``, ``-est``, ``-ing``::

  hop ⇒ hopped, rub ⇒ rubbed, prefer ⇒ preferred, transmit ⇒ transmitted
  admit ⇒ admitting, forget ⇒ forgetting, sit ⇒ sitting, slim ⇒ slimming
  travel ⇒ traveller, wet ⇒ wetter
  thin ⇒ thinner
  red ⇒ reddish, occur ⇒ occurrence