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+-*- mode: outline; coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+ English Punctuation Guide.
+
+* Punctuation symbol.
+
+ ! exclamation mark
+ "" single quotation marks
+ '' double quotation marks
+ ' apostrophe
+ , comma
+ - hyphen
+ . full stop (period USA)
+ : colon
+ ; semi colon
+ ? question mark
+ ... ellipsis
+
+* General rules.
+
+ * Put end-of-sentence punctuation inside quotation marks.
+ * Put commas and other sentence punctuation outside of parentheses.
+ * Put a comma (plus a space) before and, but, or, and nor when they join two
+ sentences.
+ * The semicolon (;) is not used widely in English and probably should be
+ avoided by non-native writers.
+ * Names of newspapers, books, movies, ships, magazines, journals, and poems
+ are usually italicized or underlined.
+
+** Capital letter.
+
+ 1 A capital is used for the first letter of a new sentence, of quoted speech
+ or proper nouns.
+ 2 The first letter of a sentence does not need to be capitalized if it is
+ included in parenthesis within another sentence.
+ 3 A capital letter is always used for the first person singular subjective
+ personal pronoun I.
+ 4 A capital is used for the first letter of key words in headings and titles.
+ If such titles are hyphenated then both components are given capitalized
+ first letters.
+ 5 A capital is used for the first letter of key words in historical events.
+ 6 A capital is used for the first letter of religions and many other
+ religious words.
+ 7 A capital is used for the first letter of names of months and days of the
+ week, but not of seasons.
+ 8 Holidays should also be capitalized.
+
+Example:
+
+ [3] My boss and I agreed that I should make up for the time I had lost.
+ [4] The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
+ [4] The Centers for Disease Control
+ [4] Vice-President Dick Cheney
+ [5] The Battle of Waterloo
+ [5] The Great Fire of London
+ [6] Devout Christians do daily Bible study.
+ [7] After a long, hot summer she married him on a sultry Saturday in September.
+ [8] January 1 is New Year's Day.
+
+** Spaces.
+
+ * Put one space after punctuation.
+ * Put no spaces before punctuation, but always put a space between words.
+ * Put no spaces after periods inside abbreviations.
+ * Put no space before or after an apostrophe.
+ * Put no space on the "inside" of quotation marks (often called "quotes").
+ * Put no space on the "inside" of parentheses.
+
+Some old rules:
+
+ * Put two spaces after colons and between sentences.
+
+
+* Exclamation mark, '!'.
+
+ * Exclamation marks act as a full stop.
+ * An exclamation mark is most often used to show shock, surprise, horror or
+ pleasure.
+ * No space is needed before an exclamation mark, at least one space after one
+ (two spaces for purists).
+
+Example:
+
+ Oh! Wow! Brilliant!
+ It was shocking!
+
+* Apostrophe, "'".
+
+ * Apostrophes next to the letter ('s) indicate possession or belonging.
+ * They are also used to show missing letters in shortened words, especially in
+ informal writing.
+ * No space is needed before or after the apostrophe.
+
+Example:
+
+ This is Lynne's web site.
+ It's a nice day today, isn't it? I've got an idea. Let's go out.
+
+* Comma, ','.
+
+ 1 Separate items in long lists.
+ 2 Commas point out brief pauses in a complex sentence or a long prepositional
+ phrase.
+ 3 Comma is included before the conjunction 'and' which comes
+ before the final element of a list (for purists).
+ 4 Introduce a direct quote.
+ 5 Separate appositives (a noun, or noun phrase) or non-defining relative
+ clauses.
+ 6 Use a comma if your subject has two or more adjectives describing it.
+ * You do not put a space before a comma, but you do need a space after one.
+ ? We don't usually put a comma before the word 'and'.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] There were a lot of people in the room, teachers, students and parents.
+ [2] The teachers were sitting, the students were listening and the parents
+ were just worrying.
+ [2] Although he wanted to come, he wasn't able to attend the course.
+ [3] I like reading, listening to music, and visiting with my friends.
+ [4] The boy said, "My father is often away during the week on business trips."
+ [4] His doctor replied, "If you don't stop smoking, you run the risk of a
+ heart attack."
+ [5] Bill Gates, the richest man in the world, comes from Seattle.
+ [5] My only sister, who is a fantastic tennis player, is in great shape.
+ [6] The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.
+
+* Colon, ':'.
+
+ 1 Colons precede a list, an explanation or an example.
+ 2 The colon is used to separate two main clauses where the first is an
+ introduction to the second.
+ 3 To introduce a direct quote (a comma can also be used in this situation).
+ * You do not put a space before a colon, but you do need a space after one.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] There are two main shopping areas in Nottingham: Broadmarsh Centre and
+ Victoria Centre.
+ [2] The pilot had an awful realization: he had forgotten to turn off the gas
+ at breakfast time.
+ [3] He announced to his friends: "I'm getting married!"
+
+* Full stop (period), '.'.
+
+ 1 Full stops (periods in the USA) go at the end of sentences that are
+ statements.
+ 2 They are also used to mark abbreviations. If such an abbreviation occurs at
+ the very end of a sentence, the final dot is not usually written twice.
+ * You do not put a space before a full stop, but you do need at least one
+ space after one (two spaces for purists).
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] My name is Lynn. I am a teacher.
+ [2] An overhead projector is often referred to as an O.H.P.
+
+* Hyphen, '-'.
+
+ * Hyphens are used to connect words or syllables, or to divide words into
+ parts.
+ * You don't use a space on either side of a hyphen.
+
+Example:
+
+ There were ninety-nine red balloons.
+
+* Question mark, '?'.
+
+ 1 Question marks go at the end of sentences that are questions.
+ 2 You need a question mark at the end of tag questions.
+ * For quotes within quotes, use single quotes.
+ * You do not put a space before a question mark, but you do need at least one
+ space after one (two spaces for purists).
+
+For example:
+
+ [1] Is my name Lynn? Of course it is.
+ [2] It's a nice day, isn't it?
+
+* Semicolon, ';'.
+
+ 1 Semicolons are used to separate two sentences that would otherwise be
+ joined with a word such as 'and', 'because', 'since', 'unless' or 'while'.
+ 2 To separate groups of words that are themselves separated by commas.
+ * You do not put a space before a semicolon, but you do need a space after one.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] I'm looking forward to our next lesson; I'm sure it will be a lot of fun.
+ [2] They plan to study German, for their travels; chemistry, for their work;
+ and literature, for their own enjoyment.
+
+
+* Quotation mark (speech mark), '""', "''".
+
+Double quotes '""', single quotes "''".
+
+ * Quotation marks (single or double) are used to show words that are directly
+ spoken (direct speech).
+ * Only the words actually being quoted are enclosed by speech marks.
+ * You need a space before the opening speech mark, but no space after it, and
+ a space after the closing one, but no space before it.
+ * Another general rule is to use a comma after the introduction to quoted
+ speech or writing.
+ * Sometimes when writing a spoken sentence it is split in two. The speech
+ marks must then be placed at the beginning and end of each part of the
+ sentence. Commas are used to separate the spoken part from the rest of the
+ sentence.
+ * If you need a question mark or exclamation mark the markers that punctuate
+ the quoted words are enclosed by the speech marks.
+
+Example:
+
+ "Could everyone sit down please," said the teacher.
+ Jaime said, "I love you."
+ "I wonder," she said quietly, "whether people will ever truly understand each other."
+ "I don't understand," replied Nathan. "Do you understand?" asked Nathan. "I don't understand!" shouted Nathan.
+ Nathan replied, "I don't understand." Nathan asked, "Do you understand?" Nathan shouted, "I don't understand!"
+ He wrote in 1946 that, "The key word in digital computer is 'digital'."
+
+* Ellipsis, '...'.
+
+ 1 Ellipsis used to show that something has been omitted, indicate missing
+ words in an incomplete quotation.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] Chomsky suggested that, "Language is a system that...can be described in
+ an algebraic notation."
+
+* Dash, '-', '--'.
+
+ 1 The dash should be used when making a brief interruption within a
+ statement, a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic
+ qualification.
+
+* Parentheses '()'.
+
+ 1 Use parentheses to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal
+ comment. Be sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of
+ directors in 2005.
+ [1] You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the
+ batteries!).
+ [1] Most grammarians believe that parentheses and commas are always
+ interchangeable (I disagree).
+
+* Brackets '[]'.
+
+ 1 Use brackets to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You
+ can also use brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it
+ appeals to your own writing.
+ 2 The first brackets are rounded, and brackets inside brackets are squared.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] "[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith.
+
+* Slash '/'.
+
+ 1 Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate.
+ 2 The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns.
+ 3 The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be
+ sure to add spaces between your slashes here.
+
+Example:
+
+ [1] To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth
+ certificate."
+ [2] The student/part-time employee has very little free time.
+ [3] "Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / life is but a dream."
+