.. -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

===================

 English spelling.

===================

About.

======

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_respelling_for_English

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_orthography

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPA_chart_for_English_dialects

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English

Деление на слоги (syllable).

============================

В слове число слогов равно числу гласных звуков::

  ba-by, pis-ton

Если на границе слогораздела одна согласная, то она отходит ко второму

слогу::

  e-ven, o-pen, i-tem

Если на границе слогораздела более одной согласной, то только первая

согласная относится к первому слогу::

  hus-band, pen-cil, mem-ber, sym-ptom

Слог образуют сочетания согласных с ``l`` и ``r``, если за ними следует

конечное нечитаемое "e"::

  ta-ble, a-ble, cy-cle, a-cre

Типы слогов.

============

Открытый слог (open syllable).

------------------------------

Заканчивается на гласную::

  ba-by

Слог, который стоит перед ND / LD, считается открытым::

Закрытый слог (closed syllable).

--------------------------------

Заканчивается на согласную, кроме "r"::

  sys-tem

Ударный слог (stressed syllable).

---------------------------------

Обычно первый слог::

  pi-lot [ˈpaɪlot], paper [ˈpeɪpə]

В производных словах смещение ударения как правило не происходит::

  nature/natural [ˈneɪʧə/ˈnæʧrəl]

  mark/remark [mɑːk/rɪˈmɑːk]

  press/impress [pres/ɪmˈpres]

Неударный слог (unstressed syllable).

-------------------------------------

* Буква "e" в конце слова не читается.

life [laɪf], table [teɪbl], dandle [dændl]

* "a" в открытом ударном слоге  - [eɪ].

  na-me [neɪm], la-ter [ˈlaɪtə]

  !!! have [hæv], many [ˈmenɪ], family [ˈfæemɪlɪ]

* "a" перед "nge" - [eɪ].

  range [reɪndʒ], danger [deɪndʒə]

* "ai" в ударном положении - [eɪ].

  main [meɪn], traine [treɪn], raise [reɪz]

  !!! said [sed]

* "ay" в ударном положении - [eɪ].

  may [meɪ], pay [peɪ], stay [meɪ]

* "a" в закрытом ударном слоге - [æ].

  cat [cæt], lat-ter [ˈlætə], fan-cy [ˈfænsɪ]

* "ar" - [ɑː].

  car [cɑː], arm [ɑːm], park [pɑːk]

* "a" в сочетании "ass" - [ɑː].

  glass [ɡlɑːs], pass [pɑːs], class [klɑːs]

  !!! mass [mæs]

* "a" в сочетании "ast" - [ɑː].

  fast [fɑːst], mast [mɑːst], cast [cɑːst]

  !!! tasty [ˈteɪstɪ]

* "a" в сочетании "ant" - [ɑː].

  grant [ɡrɑːnt], plant [plɑːnt], slant [slɑːnt]

* "a" в сочетании "anch" - [ɑː].

  branch [brɑːnʧ]

* "a" в сочетании "alf" - [ɑː].

  half [hɑːlf], calf [kɑːlf]

* "a" в сочетании "ask" - [ɑː].

  ask [ɑːsk], task [tɑːsk], mask [mɑːsk]

* "a" в сочетании "ath" - [ɑː].

  father [ˈfɑːθə], bath [bɑːθ]

  !!! gather [ˈɡæðə]

* "a" в сочетании "ance" - [ɑː].

  chance [ʧɑːns], advance [ədˈvɑːns]

* "a" в сочетании "aft" - [ɑː].

  shaft [ʃɑːft], after [ˈɑːftə], craft [krɑːft], draft [drɑːft]

* "air" - [ɛə].

  stair [stɛə], hair [hɛə], affair [əˈfɛə]

* "are" - [ɛə].

  care [kɛə], fare [fɛə], scare [skɛə]

* "a" перед "ll" или "l"+согласная - [ɔː].

  ball [bɔːl], chalk [ʧɔːk], install [ɪnˈstɔːl], almost [ɔːlməust]

* "au" - [ɔː].

  launch [lɔːnʧ]

  !!! aunt [ɑːnt]

* "aw" - [ɔː].

  saw [sɔː],

* "aught" - [ɔːt].

  naught [nɔːt]

* "auth" - [ɔːθ].

  author [ˈɔːθə]

* "ar" после "w" или "qu" - [ɔː].

  war [wɔː], warm [wɔːm], quartz [kwɔːts]

* "a" в закрытом слоге после "w" или "wh" - [ɔ].

  want [wɔt], wash [waʃ], what [wɔt]

* "a" в неударном положении - [ə].

  data [ˈdeɪtə], agenda [əˈdʒendə]

* "ai", "ay" в неударном положении - [ɪ].

  captain [ˈkæptɪn], Monday [ˈmʌndɪ]

* "age" в неударном положении - [ɪdʒ].

  marriage [ˈmærɪdʒ], sausage ['sɔsɪdʒ]

* "e" в открытом ударном слоге - [iː].

  he [hiː], le-gal [ˈliːɡəl]

* "ea" - [iː].

  mean [miːn], seat [siːt], speak [spiːk]

  !!! great [ɡreɪt], bread [bred], head [hed]

* "ee" - [iː].

  keen [kiːn], feel [fiːl], see [siː]

* "e" в закрытом ударном слоге - [e].

  bed [bed], letter [ˈletə], nest [nest]

* "ea" перед "d", "n", "th", "sure" - [e].

  bread [bred], ready [ˈredɪ], weather [ˈweθə], pleasure [ˈpleʒə], measure [ˈmeʒə], meant [ment]

* "er" в ударном слоге - [əː].

  her [həː], term [təːm], serve [səːv], permanent [ˈpəːmənənt]

* "ear" + согласная - [əː].

  heard [həːd], learn [ləːn], earth [əːθ]

* "ear" - [ɪə].

  near [nɪə], fear [fɪə], clear [klɪə]

* "eer" - [ɪə].

  engineer [ˌendʒɪˈnɪə], cheer [ʧɪə]

* "ere" - [ɪə].

  mere [mɪə], here [hɪə], sphere [sfɪə]

  !!! there [θɛə], where [wɛə], were [wəː]

* "e" в закрытом неударном слоге - [ə].

  sentence - [ˈsentəns]

* "er" в неударном положении - [ə].

  member [ˈmembə], answer [ˈɑːnsə], maker [ˈmeɪkə], perhaps [pəˈhæps]

* "e" в открытом неударном слоге - [ɪ].

  event [ɪˈvent], effect [ɪˈfect], elect [iˈlekt]

* "er" в открытом неударном слоге - [ɪ].

  regret [rɪˈɡret], repair [rɪˈpɛə], remain [rɪˈmeɪn]

* "et" в конце слова - [ɪt].

  market [ˈmɑːkɪt], planet [ˈplænɪt], genet [ˈdʒenɪt], cutlet [ˈcʌltɪd]

* "ei" в неударном слоге - [ɪ].

  foreign [ˈfɔrɪn]

* "ey" - [ɪ].

  hockey [ˈhɔkɪ], money [ˈmʌnɪ]

* "ew" - [juː].

  new [njuː], few [fjuː]

* "ew" после звуков [r, l, dʒ] - [uː].

  crew [kruː], grew [gruː]

* "eu" - [juː].

  deuce [djuːs]

* "ei" в ударном слоге - [eɪ].

  vein [veɪn], freight [freɪt], eight [eɪt]

* "ey" в ударном слоге - [eɪ].

  they [θeɪ]

* "i" в открытом ударном слоге - [aɪ].

  fi-ve [faɪv], li-ner [ˈlaɪnə],  pi-lot [ˈpaɪlət], time [taɪm]

  !!! machine [məʃiːn], cinema [ˈsɪnimə], live [lɪv], give [ɡɪv]

* "i" перед "nd" - [aɪ].

  kind [kaɪnd], find [faɪnd].

  !!! wind [wɪnd]

* "i" перед "ld" - [aɪ].

  wild [waɪld], mild [maɪld]

* "i" перед "gn" - [aɪ].

  sign [saɪn], design [dɪˈzaɪn]

* "i" перед "gh" - [aɪ].

  light [laɪt], sight [saɪt]

  !!! wind [wɪnd]

* "ie" на конце односложных слов - [aɪ].

  die [daɪ], lie [laɪ]

* "i" в закрытом ударном слоге - [i].

  pin [pɪn], din-ner [ˈdɪnə], stick [stɪk], since [sɪns]

* "i" в неударном положении - [i].

  immense [ɪˈmens], imagine [ɪˈmædʒɪn]

* "ir" в ударном положении - [əː].

  first [fəːst], girl [ɡəːl], third [θəːd]

* "ire" - [aɪə].

  fire [faɪə], mire [maɪə], entire [inˈtaɪə]

* "ia" - [aɪə].

  diamond [daɪəmənd], dialogue [ˈdaɪəlɔɡ]

* "io" - [aɪə].

  prior [praɪə], pioneer [ˌpaɪəˈniə], violate [ˈvaɪəleɪt]

* "ie" в середине корневых слов - [iː].

  field [fiːld], brief [briːf], grieve [ɡriːv]

  !!! friend [frend]

* "o" в открытом ударном слоге - [ou].

  no [nou], ro-se [rouz], so-fa [ˈsoufə]

  !!! do [duː], does [dʌz]

* "old" - [oul].

  cold [could]

* "ol" - [oul].

  control [kəntroul]

* "oll" - [oul].

  roll [roul]

* "oa" - [ou].

  road [roud], boat [bout], load [loud], loan [loun], oak [ouk]

* "ow" в конце слов - [ou].

  know [nou], window [ˈwindou], low [lou]

  !!! now [nau], how [hau], cow [kau]

* "o" перед "st" - [ou].

  post [poust], most [moust]

  !!! cost [kɔst], lost [lɔst], frost [frɔst]

* "o" в закрытом ударном слоге - [ɔ].

  on [ɔn], clock [clɔk], ob-ject [ɔbdʒɪkt], stop [stɔp], not [nɔt], got [ɡɔt]

* "ou" в середине слова - [au].

  town [taun], brown [braun], found [faund], pound [paud], sound [saund]

  !!! enough [ɪˈnʌf], country [ˈkʌntrɪ], trouble [trʌbl], touch [tʌʧ], young [jʌŋ], bowl [boul]

* "or" в ударном положении - [ɔː].

  fork [fɔːk], short [ʃɔːt], sport [spɔːt], port [pɔːt]

* "oor" - [ɔː].

  floor [flɔː], door [dɔː]

  !!! pore [puə]

* "ore" - [ɔː].

  more [mɔː], core [cɔː], bore [bɔː], ore [ɔː], before [bɪˈfɔː]

* "oar" - [ɔː].

  board [bɔːd]

* "our" в середине слова - [ɔː].

  mourn [mɔːn], source [sɔːs]

  !!! courage [ˈcʌridʒ]

* "our" под ударением - [auə].

  our [auə], hour [hauə], sour [sauə]

* "or" в неударном положении - [ə].

  visitor [ˈvɪzɪtə], doctor [ˈdɔktə], operator [ˈɔpəreɪtə]

* "our" на конце слов - [ə].

  labour [ˈleɪbə], vapour [ˈveɪpə]

* "oi" - [ɔɪ].

  voice [vɔɪs], coil [cɔɪl], toil [tɔɪl], oil [ɔɪl], noise [nɔɪz]

* "oy" - [ɔɪ].

  alloy [ˈælɔɪ], boy [bɔɪ], toy [tɔɪ]

* "oo" - [uː].

  food [fuːd], root [ruːt], noon [nuːn], too [tuː], moon [muːn], pool [puːl], doom [duːm]

  !!! good [ɡud], wood [wud], foot [fut], blood [blʌd], flood [flʌd]

* "oo" перед "k" - [u].

  book [buk], look [luk], took [tuk], hook [huk]

* "ous" на конце слов - [əs].

  various [ˈvɛərɪəs], tremendous [trɪˈmendəs]

* "oth" под ударением - [ʌθ].

  mother [ˈmʌθə], other [ˈʌθə], brother [ˈbrʌθə], another [əˈnʌθə]

  !!! both [bouθ]

* "on" под ударением - [ʌn].

  month [mʌnθ], son [sʌn], front [frʌnt], London [ˈlʌndən]

  !!! on [ɔn]

* "om" под ударением - [ʌm].

  come [kʌm], some [sʌm]

* "ov" под ударением - [ʌv].

  cover [ˈkʌvə], oven [ˈʌvn]

* "u" в открытом ударном слоге - [juː].

  pu-pil [pjuːpl], stu-dent [ˈstjuːdənt], use [juːz]

* "u" в закрытом ударном слоге - [ʌ].

  num-ber [ˈnʌmbə], un-cle [ʌŋkl], bus [bʌs]

  !!! put [put], push [puʃ], pull [pul], full [ful], bush [buʃ]

* "ue" после "l", "r", "j" - [uː].

  blue [bluː], true [truː]

* "ui" после "l", "r", "j" - [uː].

  cruise [kruːz], juice [dʒuːs], fruit [fruːt]

* "u" в неударном положении - [ə].

  upon [əˈpɔn], supply [səpˈlaɪ], suspend [səsˈpend], difficult [ˈdɪfɪcəlt]

  !!! mercury [ˈməːkjuːrɪ]

* "ur" в ударном слоге - [əː].

  curtain [kəːtn], turn [təːn], curve [cəːv], surface [ˈsəːfɪs]

* "u" перед "r" + гласная - [juə].

  pure [pjuə], cure [kjuə], curious [ˈkjuərɪəs]

  !!! sure [ʃuə]

* "y" в открытом ударном слоге - [aɪ].

  my [maɪ], try [traɪ], ty-pist [ˈtaɪpɪst], cycle [saɪkl]

* "y" в закрытом ударном слоге - [ɪ].

  sym-bol [ˈsɪməl], symptom [ˈsɪmptəm]

* "y" в открытом неударном слоге - [ɪ].

  sorry [ˈsɔrɪ], tasty [ˈteɪstɪ], family [ˈfæemɪlɪ], tardy [ˈtɑːdɪ]

* "y" в начале слов перед гласными - [j].

  yet [jet], yard [jɑːd], year [jəː]

* "yr" + гласная - [aɪə].

  tyre [taɪə], tyrant [taɪərənt], gyroplane [dzaɪrəpleɪn]

* "yr" + согласная - [əː].

  myrtle [məːtl]

* "alk" - [ɔːk].

  chalk [ʧɔːk], talk [tɔːk], walk [wɔːk]

* "aught" - [ɔːt].

  XXX

* "bt" - [t].

  debt [det], doubt [daut]

* "c" обычно - [k].

  cap [kæp], come [kʌm], cup [kʌp]

* "c" перед буквами "e", "i", "y" - [s].

  cent [sent], face [feɪs], city [ˈsɪtɪ]

* "ch" - [ʧ].

  child [ʧaɪld], chalk [ʧɔːk], chain [ʧeɪn], chess [ʧes]

* "cial" - [ʃ(ə)l].

  special [ˈspeʃ(ə)l], commercial [kəˈməːʃ(ə)l]

* "cient" - [ʃ(ə)nt].

  efficient [ɪˈfɪʃ(ə)nt]

* "ck" - [k].

  black [blæk], clock [klɔk], thick [θɪk].

* "g" обычно - [g].

  game [ɡeɪm], glad [ɡlæd], go [ɡəu]

* "g" перед буквами "e", "i", "y" - [dʒ].

  gypsy [ˈdʒɪpsɪ], gem [dʒem]

* "gn" - [n].

  sign [saɪn], gnome [nəum]

* "gm" - [m].

  paradigm ['pærədaɪm]

* "gh" не читается.

  though [ðou], through [θruː]

  !!! enough [ɪˈnʌf], laugh [lɑːf]

* "ght" - [t].

  might [maɪt], fight [faɪt]

* "igh" - [aɪ].

  high [haɪ], fight [faɪt]

* "ild" - [aɪld].

  child [ʧaɪld], wild [waɪld]

* "imb" - [aɪm].

  climb - [klaɪm]

* "ince" - [aɪns].

  XXX

* "ind" - [aɪnd].

  mind [maɪnd], find [faɪnd], kind [kaɪnd]

* "ing" - [iŋ].

  signing [ˈsaɪniŋ], running [ˈrʌnɪŋ]

* "ink" - [iŋk].

  think [θɪŋk], link [lɪŋk]

* "j" - [dʒ].

  jump [dʒʌmp]

* "kn" в начале слова - [n].

  know [kəu], knot [nɔt]

* "lf" - [f].

  calf [kɑːf], half [hɑːf]

  !!! gulf [ɡʌlf]

* "lm" - [m].

  balm [bɑːm], calm [kɑːm], holm [həum], palm [pɑːm]

* "mb" - [m].

  climb [klaɪm], limb [laɪm], comb [koum]

* "mn" на конце слова - [m].

  autumn [ˈɔːtəm], damn [dæm], hymn [hɪm]

* "ness" в неударном положении - [nɪs].

  emptiness - [ˈemptɪnɪs]

* "ng" - [ŋ].

  long [lɔŋ], song [sɔŋ], string [strɪŋ]

* "ng" и "g" относится к разным слогам - [ŋɡ].

  angry [ˈæŋɡrɪ], English [ˈɪŋɡliʃ]

* "nk" - [ŋk].

  ink [ɪŋk], think [θɪŋk]

* "ough" без последующего "t" - [uː].

  XXX

* "ought" - [ɔːt].

  brought [brɔːt], thought [θɔːt], fought [fɔːt]

* "ould" - [ud].

  could [kud], should [shud], would [wud]

* "ph" - [f].

  photo [ˈfoutou], sphere [sfɪə], phrase [freɪz]

* "pn" - [n].

  pneumonia [njuːˈmənjə]

* "pt" - [t].

  receipt [rɪˈsɪːt]

* "qu" - [kw].

  quick [kwɪk], question ['kwesʧ(ə)n]

* "ft" - [f].

  often [ɔfn]

* "r" в конце слов если следующее слова начинается с гласной - [r].

  our own room [auər oun rum]

* "s" в начале слов - [s].

  send [send], spend [spend]

* "s" перед и после глухой согласной - [s].

  test [test], cups [kʌps]

* "s" после гласных - [z].

  as [az], days [deɪz]

* "s" между гласными - [z].

  nose [nouz]

* "s" на конце слов после звонких согласных и гласных - [z].

  pens [penz], bells [belz]

* "sh" - [ʃ].

  she [ʃiː], should [ʃud], sheep [ʃiːp]

* "sion" после гласной - [ʒn].

  incision [ɪnˈsɪʒ(ə)n]

* "sion" после согласной - [ʃn].

  pension [penʃn]

* "sl" - [l].

  aisle [aɪl], island [ˈaɪlənd]

* "ss" - [s].

  chess [ʧes], Bess [bes], dress [dres]

* "st" - [s].

  castle [kaːsl], listen [lɪsn], whistle [wɪsl]

* "ssion" - [ʃ(ə)n].

  commission [kəˈmɪʃ(ə)n], progression [prəuˈɡreʃ(ə)n]

* "ssure" - [ʃə].

  XXX

* "stion" - [sʧn].

  question [qwesʧn]

* "sure" -[ʒə].

  measure [ˈmeʒə], pleasure [ˈplezhə]

* "tch" - [ʧ].

  watch [wɔʧ], pitch [pɪʧ]

* "tion" - [ʃ(ə)n].

  communication [kəˌmjuːnɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n], station [steɪʃ(ə)n], nation [neɪʃn]

* "th" в начале и в конце знаменательных слов - [θ].

  thin [θin], thick [θik], bath [bɑːθ]

* "th" в служебных словах, наречиях, местоимениях - [ð].

  the [ðə], with [wið], though [ðou], then [ðen], this [ðis], that [ðæt]

* "th" между двумя гласными - [ð].

  bathe [beið], clothe [klouð]

* "ture" - [ʧə].

  picture [ˈpɪkʧə], lecture [ˈlekʧə], culture [ˈcʌlʧə]

* "x" - [ks].

  six [sɪks]

* "wa" - [wɔ].

  want [wɔnt], wash [wɔʃ]

* "wh" перед гласными кроме "o" - [w].

  while [waɪl], whack [wæk]

* "wh" перед "o" - [h].

  who [huː], whom [huːm], whose [huːz]

* "wha" - [wɔ].

  what [wɔt]

* "wor" в ударном положении - [wəː].

  worse [wəːs], world [wəːld], work [wəːk], worm [wəːm]

  !!! worn [wɔːn]

* "wr" - [r].

  write [raɪt], wrong [rɔŋ]

* "xh" - [ks].

  exhibition [ˌeksɪˈbɪʃn]